Architecture & Design

This page is for contributors and for consumers who want a clearer picture of what xa11y is built on, how design decisions are made, and how the library is hardened. If you are looking for usage docs, start at the Overview. For how the library is verified — the test suites, the toolkit fleet, and CI — see How xa11y Is Tested.

Architecture at a glance

xa11y is a Rust workspace organised into a platform-independent core, three platform backends, and language bindings.

• xa11y-core — platform-independent types, traits, and the selector engine. Anything that does not need OS-specific FFI lives here.
• xa11y-linux — AT-SPI2 backend over zbus, plus a libxkbcommon + uinput input backend.
• xa11y-macos — AXUIElement backend with an ObjC exception-safety layer (exception_safe.m).
• xa11y-windows — UI Automation backend.
• xa11y — umbrella crate that picks the right backend at compile time and exposes the public Rust API.
• xa11y-python (PyO3 / maturin) and xa11y-js (napi-rs) — language bindings layered on top of the umbrella crate.

The public surface — App, Element, Locator, Subscription, Selector — is platform-agnostic. Each backend implements a small set of provider traits, and xa11y-core is responsible for everything that can be cross-platform: the selector parser, the locator engine, retry/wait loops, error mapping, and screenshot encoding.

Actions (press, set_value, type_text, …) are exposed on both Locator and Element. Locator is the auto-waiting wrapper: it re-resolves its selector and waits for visible+enabled before dispatching. Element calls go straight through to the provider handle captured at fetch time — no re-resolution, no wait — and surface ElementStale if the handle is gone. Both shapes share a single underlying provider call, so action fidelity (tenet 3) is enforced in one place.

Design tenets

These four tenets are the firm defaults for every new piece of provider or binding code. They are restated verbatim in CLAUDE.md so reviewers and AI agents apply them consistently.

1. No silent fallbacks

If an operation fails, return the error — don’t silently try a different mechanism. Fallbacks hide bugs and make behaviour unpredictable for consumers. Surface failures clearly so callers can handle them.

Anti-patterns this rules out:

• let _ = some_call(); swallowing a Result whose outcome matters.
• .ok() used to coerce Result → Option and discard the error reason.
• if let Ok(x) = ... { ... } that treats a real error as “no match”.
• Try-A-then-B-then-C fallback chains where each step hides the original failure.

If multiple mechanisms genuinely need to be tried, do it explicitly with logged reasoning, not silent fall-through.

2. Only expose what accessibility APIs support

If a platform has no accessibility interface for an operation, don’t paper over it with input simulation — leave the action out of the element’s actions list. Input simulation lives in its own surface (InputSim) and is never reached from locator.press() automatically.

3. Action fidelity

If an element advertises an action name in its actions list, calling that action must invoke the original platform action — not a substitute. The verbs press, toggle, focus, select, expand, collapse are semantic and may legitimately dispatch to different platform APIs (e.g. press on Windows can resolve to UIA Invoke, Toggle, SelectionItem.Select, or ExpandCollapse based on the element’s primary-activation pattern). What is forbidden is advertising one verb and calling something that does not implement it semantically (e.g. simulating a click instead of invoking the API).

4. Fail surfaceably, not fatally

Prefer Result over .unwrap() / .expect() in provider and binding code.

• Locks: .lock().unwrap() on caches becomes .lock().unwrap_or_else(|e| e.into_inner()) — poisoning in a memoization cache is recoverable.
• Platform FFI returns: never .unwrap() a CF / AX / UIA / AT-SPI2 return. Map to Error::Platform.
• Tests may use .expect("...") with a descriptive message when the failure indicates a broken fixture.
• Any new .unwrap() must have an invariant one line above that proves it can’t panic.

Breaking a tenet

These are firm defaults, not absolutes. Genuine exceptions:

1. Need explicit human approval — agents must pause and ask.
2. Are documented at the call site with a // TENET-BREAK(<N>): comment explaining why the break is justified and what the alternative would cost.
3. Are greppable (rg 'TENET-BREAK'), so the full set of exceptions stays visible and reviewable.

Testing strategy

The testing philosophy has two pillars: integration tests against real, live applications and layered coverage so that platform-specific bugs are caught at the layer that owns them.

Layers

• Unit tests (cargo xtask test) — selector parsing, locator/wait loops, error mapping, and per-backend logic that doesn’t need a live AX tree. Run on every push on Linux, macOS, and Windows.
• Rust core integration suite (xa11y/tests/integ/, run via cargo xtask test-integ) — the fast-path validation suite for the core API surface. All tests are #[ignore] and target the AccessKit + winit test app. Event subscription is split per-platform (events_linux.rs, events_macos.rs, events_windows.rs).
• Per-app compatibility suites (tests/<framework>/) — Python integration tests that drive each major UI framework end-to-end through xa11y. They confirm that real-world AX trees, roles, and actions behave correctly with frameworks other than AccessKit. JS suites add a partial second-binding check.
• Fuzz targets (xa11y/fuzz/ for libFuzzer; xa11y-fuzz/ for live-app stress) — randomised stress over the public API, the selector engine, tree operations, and serde round-trips.
• Linux Wayland uinput e2e — drives LinuxInputProvider through its public API on the runner and reads events back via libevdev, verifying wire-level codes/values for the input-simulation surface.

Cross-cutting choices

• Live targets only — every integration test runs against a real running application, never a recorded fixture. Live tests catch backend bugs that recorded ones miss.
• One coverage vehicle per concern. Input simulation and screenshot capture exercise platform input/screenshot APIs, not AX-framework compatibility, so they are tested once per platform (against the Tauri app, which runs on all three) rather than against every framework.
• Test-app-first. When an integration test needs a widget the test app doesn’t expose, the test app gets the widget before the test is added. This keeps tests deterministic and prevents the suite from drifting away from a stable target surface.
• Coverage matrix as a CI gate. tests/matrix.yaml is machine-readable; tests/matrix_check.py runs in CI and fails the build when a row drifts away from what’s documented. Gaps must be declared, not silently introduced.
• Bindings parity check. cargo xtask check-bindings-parity keeps the Rust, Python, and JS public surfaces aligned so a feature added to one binding cannot quietly miss the others.

Test-suite map

The matrix below summarises which apps are exercised on which platforms and what each suite covers. compat = tree structure and widget discovery; actions = press/toggle/focus/type/expand-collapse; events = subscription and state-change detection; input_sim and screenshot = the platform-input and screenshot surfaces.

Test app	Frameworks tested	Platforms in CI	Suites that target it	Features covered
AccessKit	Rust + winit + AccessKit	Linux, macOS, Windows	Rust core integ, JS integ	compat, actions, events, screenshot
Qt	PySide6 (Qt 6)	Linux, macOS, Windows	Python integ	compat, actions, events
GTK	GTK 4 (PyGObject)	Linux	Python integ	compat, actions¹
Cocoa	AppKit (Swift)	macOS	Python integ	compat, actions, events
Tauri	Tauri (Rust + HTML)	Linux, macOS, Windows	Python integ	compat, actions, events, input_sim, screenshot
Electron	Chromium + Node	Linux	JS integ	compat, actions, AccessibilityNotEnabled detection

¹ GTK event subscription is exercised through the Rust integ suite via AT-SPI2 rather than duplicated in the per-app Python suite.

CI matrix

CI runs every push and pull request, with RUSTFLAGS: -Dwarnings so warnings fail the build. The notable jobs:

Job	Runner	What it does
Linux	ubuntu-latest	Workspace unit tests + AccessKit Rust integ suite under Xvfb + dbus.
Linux Wayland (uinput)	ubuntu-latest	uinput e2e for the Wayland input backend; reads back via libevdev.
macOS	macos-latest	Workspace unit tests. (TCC-bound integ tests run locally; see below.)
Windows	windows-latest	Workspace unit tests + AccessKit Rust integ suite via UIA.
Integ (per app × OS)	matrix	One app × one OS × Python+JS+CLI suites via tests/harness/launch.py.
Lint & Format	ubuntu-latest	cargo fmt, clippy -Dwarnings, README sync, bindings parity, matrix check.
Python bindings	ubuntu-latest	maturin build, ruff, pytest for the Python wheel.
JS bindings	matrix (3 OS)	napi build, type-check, unit tests on Linux + macOS + Windows.
Docs build	ubuntu-latest	Generates Python/JS API docs and builds the Starlight site.
Fuzz	ubuntu-latest	10 s per fuzz target on every push for cheap regression coverage.
License check	ubuntu-latest	cargo deny check licenses.
Cross-compile	ubuntu-latest	cargo check -p xa11y-core for x86_64 and aarch64 across Linux/macOS.

macOS Rust integ tests for the AccessKit app are not wired into CI: they require kTCCServiceAccessibility to be granted to a binary whose path is cargo-hashed, which has proven fragile on hosted runners. They run locally through ./scripts/run_integ_tests_macos.sh and are #[ignore]d so cargo test --workspace skips them.

Pre-PR checklist

Before opening a PR, run cargo xtask check. It chains formatting (fmt --check), lint (clippy + ruff + Python Rust check), unit tests, and Python bindings. For provider or test-app changes, also run cargo xtask test-integ. The same checks run in CI; fixing them locally first keeps review tight.

Platform notes

macOS: ObjC exception safety

All raw CoreFoundation / AX FFI calls in xa11y-macos/src/ax.rs go through wrappers in exception_safe.m. A misbehaving AX value’s -release or -getTypeID can throw an NSException that unwinds through extern "C" and aborts the process; the wrappers contain those throws inside @try / @catch. New CF/AX calls add a safe_* wrapper if one doesn’t exist. The rule is enforced by cargo xtask check-macos-ffi, which fails the build if a raw CF/AX symbol is referenced outside a comment in ax.rs.

Linux: input subsystem

Wayland input simulation goes through uinput. The Wayland uinput e2e tests run directly on the runner rather than in a container — Docker’s /dev tmpfs isolation hides the udev-minted /dev/input/eventN node for the virtual device, even with --device /dev/uinput and a bind mount. The container path is still useful for non-Linux developer hosts.

Windows: UI Automation

Hosted windows-latest runners do have an interactive desktop session, so UIA event subscriptions work in CI. The Rust integ harness launches the AccessKit test app, waits for it to register with UIA, runs the #[ignore]d tests with --test-threads=1, and tears the app down.